A Pattern for Joint Operations: World War II Close Air Support, North Africa

Preface

The story of events in Washington and North Africa between 1939 and mid-1943, when the Allies defeated Axis forces in Tunisia, has current significance. The interplay of staff planning and attempts to define doctrine, the organization of training and field operations, and adjustments to the demands of technology should be instructive. Generals George C. Marshall, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Henry H. Arnold, George S. Patton, Jr., Omar N. Bradley, Carl Spaatz, and other air and ground leaders were vitally concerned with the cohesiveness of their combined forces--that is, the shared understanding among the leaders in Washington and the commanders at theater and task force levels. Another aspect that may be of interest to Army students of close air support is the testing of War Department doctrine in the muddy terrain of Tunisia, under the constraints of "the fog of battle," that typified the Allied experience in North Africa. Air Force leaders may also find, at the very least, some value in the struggle to define command and control systems o r in the attitudes of ground personnel, especially the latter's need to understand the commitment of air-to-ground tasks.

It is altogether fitting that this study of joint air-ground operations in World War II should recognize the early support of those Army and Air Force people who found a historical analysis to be important. Army Col. David Cooper and Air Force Lt. Col. Edward Land of the Joint Assessment and Initiative Office; Col. Ken Kissell of the Chief of Staff, USAF, Staff Group; Lt. Col. Robert Frank and Dr. Alexander S. Cochran, Jr., of the U.S. Army Center of Military History; and Mr. Herman Wolk and Col. Fred Shiner of the Office of Air Force History--each in their own way offered encouragement for the particular subject of close air support and to the idea of a cross-service research project. Librarians and archivist at the U.S. Army Center of Military History and at the Office of Air Force History were particularly helpful. A t the Center of Military History Miss Hannah Zeidlik, Ms. Barbara Williams, and Ms. Geraldine K. Judkins dug out historical documents and records and found books relating to the subject. Mr. William C. Heimdahl and M. Sgt. Roger A. Jernigan at the Office of Air Force History offered advice and unending effort to the search for materials. Finally, Mr. Hugh Howard, Mrs. Patricia Tugwell, and Mrs. Velma Jones at the Pentagon Library and archivists Mr. Edward J. Reese, Mr. Wilbert B. Mahoney, and Ms. Teresa Hammet at the Modern Military Branch of the National Archives and Records Administration provided valuable research assistance in my search for pertinent World War II records. Special thanks is due to these competent librarians and archivists for their continued professional service to demanding historians as myself.

All those who read and reread d r a f t s of the manuscript deserve more recognition than given in these few lines of credit. Much thanks will remain in my heart. Nevertheless, my appreciation extends to many colleagues at the Center of Military History: Dr. David F. Trask; Lt. Col. Robert Frank; Dr. Alexander S. Cochran, Jr. ; Maj. Bruce Pirnie; Dr. Edgar F. Raines, Jr.; Lt. Col. David Campbell; Maj. Lawrence M. Greenberg; Maj. Francis T. Julia, Jr.; and Dr. Paul J. Scheips, who kept me honest with the Army viewpoint and corrected by grammar. At the Office of Air Force History important readers and advisers included Col. Fred Shiner, Mr. Herman Wolk, Dr. B. Franklin Cooling, Dr. George Watson, and Dr. Wayne Thompson. They all expended great energy and time in their critiques of the manuscript. Additional advice was continually sought from Dr, Fred Beck, Dr. Walton Moody, Lt. Col. Vance Mitchell, and Maj. John Kreis, whose knowledgeable minds helped expand my understanding of the very complicated events of World War II Washington and North Africa.

The individuals involved in the preparation of this study for publication also deserve special mention. A t the Air Force they include: Dr. Fred Beck, Mrs. Anne E. Andarcia, Ms. Vanessa Allen, Mr. David Chenoweth, Ms. Laura L. Hutchinson, and Mr. Ray Del Villar.  At the Army they include: Mr. John W. Elsberg; Mr. Arthur S. Hardyman; Ms. Linda M. Cajka who prepared the charts, maps, illustrations, and the cover; Mr. Robert J. Anzelmo, my editor; and last but really first, my project editor, Ms. Joanne M. Brignolo. 

As expected, this writer takes full responsibility for interpretations, omissions, and errors of fact.