A Pattern for Joint Operations: World War II Close Air Support, North Africa

Operations: Reorganization and the Second Tunisian Offensive 

While many Twelfth Air Force units had been released to aid the First Army in November and December of 1942, Allied leaders held back a number of units in western Algeria and Morocco, and assigned them to protect the lines of communications with Gibraltar and England. The usefulness of these units for operations against the Axis was limited, because personnel and units lacked operational training and because poor transportation facilities prevented supply and maintenance of additional troops on the battlefront, In view of his dual mission to protect the lines of communications in Morocco and Algeria and to support Anderson's drive against Tunisia in November, Doolittle began organizing the air forces into flexible composite commands, each with a specific geographic area of responsibility.

By the end of December Eisenhower, more satisfied with the pacification of Morocco and Algeria and willing to increase force strength for the campaign in Tunisia, invalidated the need for Doolittle's small composite air forces. Rather, Eisenhower agreed with ground and air commanders that the time was ripe for a centralized air command in the Mediterranean, to coordinate the air forces better. On 5 January 1943, with British concurrence, he instituted a new layer in the air command structure, designating a new air force headquarters, the Allied Air Forces, at his headquarters in Algiers. He appointed his air adviser, General Spaatz, commander of this Allied Air Force. Spaatz had great influence organizing the British and American air effort in Tunisia, but he had difficulty coordinating the widely separated air units because communications was crude and inadequately supplied. AFHQ, the headquarters of British and American armies, the Navy, and even the Allied Air Force were in different locations in Algeria and Morocco. Sometimes motorcycles were the only available means for transmitting messages and command instructions.

Eisenhower also accepted the British concept of dividing major mission responsibilities by function rather than by national consideration. Nevertheless, a tendency of maintaining national unity in lower echelons prevailed throughout the war. The reorganization again left close air support functions without central direction on the battlefield. In the new Allied air force structure Doolittle's bomber organization would specialize in deep-strike bombing missions, and the Royal Air Force would specialize in air-ground support. Eisenhower assigned Air Commodore Lawson the task of close air support for British First Army. When American forces began to be deployed, Eisenhower could not resist letting the American airmen support American ground forces, and the Twelfth Air Force carried out-support to the American ground forces in Tunisia, as well as its bombing missions.²¹

In January 1943 Eisenhower decided to intensify efforts in central Tunisia; favorable weather conditions promised better results along the coast, where mud and strong defensive positions slowed Anderson's First Army (Map 5). Eisenhower designated Fredendall's II Corps as the principal ground force for the advance against the German communications line that ran north to south through Tunisia. Important to later events, a new Free French element was slipped in between the American and British forces operating in the north. Remaining at Algiers, Eisenhower assumed direct command of military operations on the entire front, exercising that command through a ground deputy, Brig. Gen. Lucian K. Truscott, Jr., stationed at Constantine, a hundred or so miles from the front. Spaatz, as Eisenhower's staff air officer, and the Twelfth Air Force played an integral part in AFHQ planning. Spaatz directed air force operations of continuing interest to the theater, including close air support; interdiction against Axis forces, shipping, ports, and airfields; reconnaissance service; and air defense. Spaatz also surveyed the battlefield with Maj. Gen. Mark W. Clark in an attempt to develop better cooperation between air and ground units.²²

Eisenhower moved the XII Air Support Command from Morocco and, following previous procedures, attached it to II Corps. Spaatz sought to tie the air and ground forces together by appointing a XII Air Support colonel to serve as liaison officer with the British First Army and by dedicating airplanes to both of the major ground commanders, Anderson and Fredendall. Brig. Gen. Howard A. Craig, who replaced Cannon as the commander of the XII Air Support Command, outlined a conventional air support plan: He would locate his headquarters next to II Corps Headquarters; his fighter and light bomber groups would serve as the basic force, but other Twelfth Air Force units could be called in as necessary; an advanced operations command post would help control air units in the advanced combat area; and air support parties with HF and VHF radio sets would be attached to combat commands or teams ²³

Craig's plans indicated that close air support missions would be a large part of the XII Air Support Command's efforts but that other tactical missions were important as well, and ground commanders would have to appreciate certain air limitations. He stipulated that air missions be planned in advance and that extemporaneous calls for air support be kept to a minimum. Prior to D-Day, all available air units would reconnoiter the front and flanks of the advance route. Fighter sweeps would hit enemy air installations and, joining with light bombers, they would attack any enemy counteroffense. Close air support air cover for the advancing forces would be "provided only at critical places and for limited periods." For full daylight cover, other Twelfth Air Force fighter aircraft would have tg be called into the campaign. Orders for missions would come from the Air Support Command. Craig asserted that the Air Support Command would exert a maximum effort against previously identified enemy targets, but that a large portion of the air strength would be held "in readiness for calls from the Air Support Parties with the several elements of the Division and Corps."²⁴

On 17 January II Corps was just beginning a forward movement in central Tunisia when it was preempted by a German counterattack at a weak spot in the line--the French defenders located between the Americans in the south and British forces in northern Tunisia. The British 6th Armoured Division as well as Robinett's armor moved to the aid of the retreating French. The action was over quickly. By the twenty-fifth the German advance was halted. The Royal Air Force's tactical air organization, No. 242 Group, put up daily fighter-bomber sorties, but the XII Air Support Command gave only minor aid during the eight days of defensive action. Post-battle evaluation suggested several reasons for lack of aid from the XII Air Support Command, including an inhibiting enemy air superiority, inadequate command and control of available close air resources, and ineffective tactics.²⁵ In an interview Maj. Gen. Lunsford E. Oliver, who had been Combat Command B commander earlier, suggested that, with enemy air superiority, ground forces needed a quicker response time when they requested air support. The system of requests going up and down command echelons was too slow. Instead, "We've got to be able to call for our support planes that are actually in the air."²⁶

The first intense encounters with German forces revealed a flaw in American support bombardment tactics. Their use of light and medium bombers for low-level close air support missions proved disastrous because of effective German light antiaircraft artillery. Arnold's fears about the new bombers were justified. The A-20, B-25, and B-26 crews were forced to high altitude operations while in the middle of combat operations. While flying at a new altitude of 10,000 feet was not difficult, trying to hit targets using crude bomb sights and flying in formation proved impossible without intense training. The airmen had some success experimenting with the British fighter-bomber technique using bomb-carrying fighters to attack front-line targets. Fighter resources were overstrained, however, trying to provide escort for bombers and area defense for airfields and for the ground operations attacked by offensive-minded Axis air forces.

There was blame for all. Although poor training and inadequate numbers of aircraft were at the heart of the complaints from the II Corps, airmen also found fault with II Corps' ignorance of Army air doctrine. For example, the II Corps commander, Fredendall, refused a request for air reconnaissance from the French, suggesting that the French sector was not his responsibility. In another instance Spaatz felt it was necessary to come to Fredendall's headquarters to complain about the improper use of reconnaissance aircraft. Contrary to Spaatz's orders, Fredendall had ordered light bomber missions over enemy territory, when the bombers were equipped with sensitive gear that would jeopardize Allied security if captured. Spaatz insisted that Fredendall should not attempt to operate the air resources without a knowledgeable airman by his side and that the XII Air Support Command commander, Craig, should control the air resources until air and ground headquarters could be joined. Eisenhower recognized the difficulty of coordinating forces across national lines, and taking a cue from Allied leaders a t Casablanca, on 21 January he assigned Anderson coordinating responsibilities for all Allied forces.²⁷

At the same time, Eisenhower ordered his staff air operations officer, Brig. Gen. Laurence S. Kuter, to command all Allied air support operations. Within a few days, Eisenhower recognized the difficulty for Anderson to coordinate independent commands spread over a broad front. On 26 January Anderson was given command over the Allied forces in the Tunisian offensive. Kuter was now directly responsible to Anderson, and he located his headquarters with Anderson's at Constantine. Kuter's Allied Air Support Command coordinated missions for the XII Air Support Command and the No. 242 Group and passed bombing requests to Twelfth Air Force and Eastern Air Command. Always concerned with theater strategy, Eisenhower informed Anderson that the Allied air forces would continue to attack Rommel's communications lines. The command arrangement developed by Eisenhower began to resemble even more the air forces doctrinal model for centralized theater control of air.²⁸

On 30 January the Germans launched their second of three major offensives against the Allies in Tunisia, this one also against the French sector. Eisenhower attached II Corps under the command of the British First Army, although Anderson in turn directed Fredendall to command all ground forces in the area of attack. Anderson and Fredendall did not have a system to coordinate the air support, except through the efforts of Kuter at Allied Air Support Command. Close air support promised to be a problem, and the likelihood of a problem was increased by the appointment of a new commander for the XII Air Support Command. Col. Paul L. Williams had a reputation of being compliant to ground commanders. He also carried less rank and influence than Craig.

For five days Allied forces fought a defensive battle, finally retreating to stronger positions. Again, Allied air could not gain superiority over Axis air and was still too weak to play a decisive role against the Axis ground advance. With assistance from Rommel's German Desert Air Force and the Italian air forces, which had been forced back by the British in the east, the Axis kept effective control of the air over Tunisia. In the middle of the battle German Stukas laid a vicious attack on the 1st Armored Division's Combat Command D.* Ground commanders again asked for more air cover. Williams directed some strafing and bombing attacks against German assault forces in direct support of Allied ground operations. He allocated aircraft for interdiction strikes, especially at communications in the German rear. He also coordinated with Kuter's Allied Air Support Command the employment of other air organizations, including some interdiction missions by the Twelfth Air Force fighters and bombers, even the B- 17s normally used for more distant targets, against the German rear.

Williams also complied with the ground commander's requests for a defensive air umbrella, and on one occasion, on 1 February, his fighter cap caught and broke up attacking Stuka and Messerschmitt Me-109 fighter escort formations. However, the intense activity in close air support and other tactical missions extracted a price from XII Air Support Command resources. Flying organizations were debilitated. For example, the most experienced fighter unit, the 33d Fighter Group, suffered so many losses it was forced into retirement in Morocco for regrouping. Air and ground leaders learned about the attrition of air resources in air-ground missions, namely, that aircraft were easily used up and as vulnerable as air doctrine suggested. Leaders also recognized that defensive air operations, especially covers flown on a broad-fronted war, used up all available resources. Either more aircraft were needed to respond to the requests of the ground commanders or Williams would have to allocate his aircraft more judiciousIy.²⁹

Eisenhower felt that the Army's failure stemmed from the confusion of battle and inexperience of the troops, who were unable to maintain their composure in combat. He told Fredendall, Anderson, Spaatz, and other subordinate commanders that battle losses were caused "by failure of officers to carry out orders, by men failing to construct foxholes or slit trenches, by disregard of orders requiring use of vehicle blackout lights, by running vehicle columns closed up." He believed the troops had insufficient antiaircraft defenses, and he suggested that additional training was needed to teach ground troops not only that enemy dive bombers were vulnerable to small arms fire but also that they should "fire with every available weapon against enemy aircraft within range."³⁰ Eisenhower turned to the experienced Mideast British commanders for guidance.

Eisenhower did not criticize the published air-ground doctrine; rather, he indicated that the problem with close air support operations lay in the need for air and ground forces to "get together in training. . . ."³¹ He called for the inculcation of existing doctrine. At the air support command level Williams also approved the basic doctrine in FM 31-35. Both men suggested that the combat practices were distorting some of the doctrine, especially the defensive stance necessary for air cover. Airmen had consistently asserted, and published doctrine stated, that air umbrellas overtaxed the limited resources and were, by their very nature, incomplete and ineffective. In addition, if the air support commander allocated his resources for a widespread defensive cover, he would be unable to concentrate his forces for the air superiority campaign. The only way to stop the enemy air attack, according to current Army Air Force doctrine, was to give it the highest priority and destroy aircraft in offensive air actions and attacks on enemy air bases. At Eisenhower's headquarters Kuter asserted that the German dive bomber attack on Combat Command D marked the only time American troops suffered greatly under destructive German air attack , even though Stukas attacked on several occasions. In summary, air and ground leaders at theater level agreed that the air and ground forces put great effort into close air support but failed to apply published doctrine. I t would take more education and training to change the ground commanders' minds on the danger of Stukas before they would decrease their demands for increased air support. Close air support practices and doctrine were not yet in accord on the battlefield.³²